History Of Pragmatic Transfer English Language Essay

History Of Pragmatic Transfer position row EssayAbstractThe purpose of this reputation is to find forbidden whether virtual(a) lurch takes place in Saudi-Arabians cheers responses ( contingently manlys). It excessively touches the part of deli actually proficiency and its effects on hard-nosed competence. Additionally, it shows the ends and the similarities between natives paying attention, eulogy responses and Saudi males acclamations and compliment responses. The subjects were three convocations natives and non-native side afternoon teachers and non-native and non-side teachers. I put ond the discussion result test to come up with valid various results.It has been instal that there be no differences in compliments between Saudi males and native loudspeaker systems of side. Secondly, when responses to compliments be to be utter, differences arise. From the study, it was discovered that Saudi males do non give rise tail- similar compliment responses. Moreover, style proficiency does non endure a major role in practical sanction competence. As the I noniced from the responses to compliments that Saudi males whether majoring in English or not, they disclose the very(prenominal)(prenominal) responses take out that the English teachers group translate the responses literally into English.What does pragmatic autory-over mean? And does it have to do with proficiency of manner of speaking? Is it a maneuverdamental issue in moment actors line accomplishment? What do we mean by a compliment? How does compliment responses guinea pig communicating crack-up?Pragmatic bump off is defined as the influence of learners pragmatic knowledge of language and culture mark than the address language on their comprehension, production, and acquisition of L2 pragmatic information (Rizk 2003, p. 404).Pragmatic competence is absolutely inwrought in face-to-face interactions in a foreign language. Children drive pragmatic compete nce in their native language through interaction with their p atomic number 18nts or older children, in other words, engagement in contextualized communicatory activities. They arrive continuous feedback from pargonnts and peers who form appropriate routines, establish rules, and correct childrens inappropriate behavior. This feedback contri merelyes to the acquisition of the pragmatic skills required to function in their community. In contrast, to the highest degree swelled foreign language learners lack that type of input. Consequently, the classroom becomes the most important, and by chance the only, source of relevant input for the enhancing of their pragmatic competence.Compliments atomic number 18 a kind of speech acts that is reconcile in eitherday conversations. In fact, remunerative different compliments and responding differently is dependent on cultures and situational conversations. many cultures use a lot of compliments and praises whereas others may find it a s a kind of insincerity. Therefore, cross-cultural communication theory occur and any(prenominal)(prenominal)times may cause a kind of insulting to the other partner involved in a conversation.Al-khatib 2I have never come across some(prenominal) study on the Saudi community in wrong of compliment responses which furthers me to conduct much(prenominal) a study. However, legion(predicate) studies were done on several societies that reflect the signifi give the bouncece of carrying out such studies.The importance of the exhibit study arises where People consider that ESL Learners must learn honourable grammar rules and musical composition styles in classrooms whereas other aspects of the language can be acquired through devour or watching T.V. Actually, it can be done this way, however, we do not know how much time impart be allocated for it and how well learners would acquire semantic meanings without any guidance to make the situations cle ber and more intelligible.Havi ng done this, ESL learners will lack the appropriate ways of communication with native speakers of a particular language or even non-natives in everyday dialogues. In my opinion, lingual mistakes can be corrected and the person would be considered that he is not grammatically equal. However, semantic or pragmatic mistakes may cause offensive activity to the other person. Additionally, it might lead to miscommunication and misapprehend which results in communicative breakdown. Basically, communicative breakdown is communicative failure in which conversations halt at this point. When mis empathiseing takes place, none of the partners know what to say or how to reply to such pronounceions. unawareness of the others culture is the major cause of this problem. Therefore, teaching pragmatics is vestigial in ESL classes to change the students speak the commit language confidently and appropriately.Pragmatic competence is as essential and important as lingual competence. Being lin guistically competent does not necessarily means that you are pragmatically competent. In fact, cosmos able to construct grammatically correct sentences does not mean that theses sentences are pragmatically appropriate or even acceptable. I am discharge to shed a light on all these early mentioned topics, decision out from the result how pragmatic competence is important for SL learners.Literature check up onIntercultural miscommunications often occur when ESL Learners fall back on their L1 in realizing any kind of speech act in L2. In fact, the lacking of the target language bear witnessions and culture forces students to doAl-khatib 3that. That what is meant by pragmatic transportation system according to Rizk(2005). There are devil kinds of pragmatic transfer validating which is considered to be a proof of pragmatic universality among languages, and nix transfer which is organism not able to understand the target language which everlastingly results in pragmatic failure. Negative pragmatic transfer, as Rizk (2003) explains, takes the form of translating some formulaic expressions/ phrases functioning to express different speech acts in (L1) to express the equivalent speech act in L2. (p.405). El Samaty (2005) mentions one factor in that may influence pragmatic transfer and that is learners awareness of what constitutes a language particularized or a universal issue (p.342). Learners would not transfer an L1 pragmatic feature to L2 if they know that it is language specific. In fact, language specific refers to the features or expressions of a language which cannot be used in other languages.Pragmatic studies which deal with different speech acts have not been conducted public treasury recently. These studies focused on L1 in most cases, however later, L2 and cross-cultural communications have been introduced. The L2 pragmatic transfer researches have shown that in spite of being linguistically competent in a second language, learners are in all probability to transfer L1 pragmatic rules in their L2 production (El Samaty, 2005). Takahashi and Beebe (1998) theorized that there is a unequivocal relation between L2 proficiency and pragmatic transfer. They argued that more proficient learners take to the woods to transfer L1 socio-cultural norms more than less proficient learners because they have enough fancy over L2 to express L1 sentiments at a high pragmatic direct. Eslami-Rasekh (2004) backs this produce stating that linguistically competent learners do not necessarily possess comparable with(predicate) pragmatic competence. Even grammatically advance(a) learners may use language inappropriately and show differences from target-language pragmatic norms. In 1986, Blum-kulka and Olshtain used discourse completion tests to analyze the utterance length of requesting strategies in Hebrew. They collected the data from non-native speakers of Hebrew at three proficiency aims, and they found out that high-intermediate lear ners produced utterances lengthy than the utterances of low-intermediate and advanced learners, which was considered by the researchers as pragmatic failure ( Ghawi 2002, p.39).Compliments in both Arabic (Saudi culture) and American culturesCompliments have been defined by a lot of linguists. Compliments in short are praise that are said to hatfulAl-khatib 4to make them happy or to encourage and congratulate them on their success they achieve. Every culture has different types of compliments. Moreover, every culture uses various compliments according to variable situations. Therefore, cultures get dominating from each other. Many community think that they can pay any kind of compliments to people coming from different cultures claiming that we are vainglorious praise, so it is fine. In fact, it is not for several reasons. set-backly, compliments might be rarely used in a particular culture which people might think that it is a kind of being in contend or trying to get the oth er partner to your side. Secondly, some compliments in a specific culture might be considered insults in other cultures. For instance, we cannot compliment on a girl dictum you are fat in Arabic or even Malaysian or European cultures whereas the same clause can be understood as a compliment in the African culture.Saudi culture is a part of the Arabic culture except for very few differences in terms of tact and some other speech acts. In fact, Saudis unremarkably pay compliments on several things such as appearance, traits, and in-person skills. It is not something strange that Saudis frequently give complements Arabs in general comparable to pay much praise to each other. It seems that it is purposeful in a way that it keeps the relations among friends and relatives more intimate and it can be a tool sometimes to please somebody whom you feel that you upset her/him. English in Saudi Arabia is considered a foreign language. The medium of instruction at school, colleges and unive rsities is Arabic except in English departments where English is applied as the medium of instruction. Culture is carried and delivered through language, however, since the language is even so not totally there, so the culture would not be understood. Therefore, very few people speak English fluently and clearly. In fact, even the ones who speak fluently, they still have some problems with the western (English) culture. Consequently, pragmatic errors will appear in their speech.Compliments form.Compliment form refers to the kind of language used to express the compliment. The compliments differed in their length, use of metaphor and comparatives, and to some extent, syntactic structure. They were also similar in that both Saudi and American compliments were originally adjectival in that an adjective was responsible for their positive meaning.The American compliments are short, as in (1) through (3).Al-khatib 5(1) You look great.(2) Your car is nice.(3) Good job.If we analyze the American compliments to the Arabic compliments (Saudi in particular) we will find out that Saudi compliments are longer than the American ones. Consider this exampleEeh alhalawa dee ya wad, 3l3amar doobu tele2, 3rhamna ya sheek ya heelou.What is all this smartness man? The moon has however appeared We cannot take itThe length of the Saudi compliments appears to be think to to two features of Arabic discourse 1) Repetition of almost the same mood with a change in words and.2) The use of several adjectives in a series.The use of metaphor in Arabic culture varies from the American culture. In Arabic culture, the moon is the symbol of beauty because it appears at night where the world is full of dark, however, the moon shines up there lighting the landscape. Therefore, Arabs compare good-looking people with the moon. However, as we noticed from the previous examples of compliments by Americans and Saudis, both are using adjectives in their compliments. All these words (in English great, nice, good) and ( in Arabic helou, sheek= benignant, gentle) are adjectives.2 Attributes praised.There is no difference between the American and the Saudi culture when it comes to the kinds of attributes that people tend to compliment upon. Most of the situations where compliments are appropriate to be said and responded to are similar. Basically, Saudis and Americans usually pay compliments on appearance, skills, and traits. Appearance refers to ones look and include haircuts, eyes, and clothing. Skills refers to the quality of something produced or done. Traits refer to personality characteristics such as kindness, politeness and intelligence.Compliment responsesResponses to requests or apology can be easy and limited. These two kinds of speech acts might not differ much in most languages. Additionally, the responses can be shortened by locution either yes or no. However, when it comes to compliment responses a lot of things must be considered such as the kind of theAl-k hatib 6said compliment, the relationship between the speaker and the recipient and the culture. Both Americans and Saudis respond totally, differently to compliments. In fact, cultures play a major role in the responses.Usually, Arabs respond to compliments by go another compliment which is quite strange to people from different cultures in particular Americans. One of the compliment responses by Saudis was you are more handsome. Such a response may be problematic to people from another culture. interrogation questionsAs I mentioned earlier, the purpose of this study is to examine pragmatic transfer in compliment responses by Arabic learners of English(Saudis in particular). Three related research questions emergedWhat are the similarities and differences in compliments and compliments responses between male NSs and Saudi male NNSs of English?When speaking in English, will Saudis males compliment responses be closer to Arabic or English?To what extent language proficiency plays a role in their use of compliment responses?To resolving power these types of questions we should first collect the data of the study which was done on the subjects. methodologyFor more valid and serviceable results I have chosen 3 groups to conduct my study upon. The subjects are all males and they are in 30s. In fact, the reason place not choosing females is that the study was done in Saudi Arabia where it is so difficult to approach any woman. Additionally, all academic institutions are separate meaning that each gender (female, male) is in totally separate place and men are not allowed to enter ladies sections. Therefore, it was easier to choose just males.Group1 10 Americans (native speakers of English) English teachers.Group 2 10 Saudis (non-natives+ advanced learners, they are level 7)Group 3 10 Saudis (non-native+ low intermediate, they are level 2)Al-khatib 7Actually, these learners are students at Direct English institute in Saudi Arabia. In this institute, there are 8 le vels starting from 1 till 8. They take 7 classes in English weekly five classes with bilinguals and two classes with native speakers. In each level students take the same amount of classes and each level lasts for six weeks. The level of proficiency was interpreted according to this classification.Tool Discourse Completion Test.The tool consists of 5 scenarios created by the researcher. The subjects are expected to respond to the compliments given in the scenarios. Additionally, musing also has been used to come up with more valid results.First scenarioYou are wearing new gloomful jeans. Your friend complimented you you look handsome, blue is great on youYou say..Americans responded to the compliment with acceptance maxim thank or you really do my day.Those who responded in Arabic said but you are more handsome/this is because you have a good bask/ really? Swear to God.The third group who responded in English said your eyes are beautiful and they see everything beautiful other s responded I bought it in the sales, it is so cheap. Just one person said thanks, I like it tooSecond scenarioYou have just ended a calculating machine game scoring a very high score that many of your friends could not reach this point. One paid you a compliment you are so skillful and professional in this gameYou say close to Americans respond to the compliment with comment history saying thanks, I vie this game hundreds of time. Others said do you expect me to help you?Al-khatib 8The second group who responded in Arabic said stop making fun of meThe third group who responded in English said are you drab? I do not think so. You are just complimenting me. trey scenarioYou always come by time whenever there is a meeting or a party one gave you a compliment you are very punctualYou say .Americans responded to the compliment with comment acceptance saying thanks, it is my favorite habitThe first group who responded in Arabic said thanks, so are you . Those who responded in Englis h said but you are more punctual/ I think you are the symbol of punctuality. onward scenarioYour friends are in your house. And then you served them tea. One of your friends complimented on it saying the tea is very sweet and delicious you say.Americans responded to compliments with acceptance saying thank you some responded with acceptance offering the chemical formula would you like the recipe?Those who responded in Arabic saidthat is because your taste is sweet and you taste everything sweet/ your taste is distinct in that you know which is delicious and which is nasty.,Those who responded in English said I dipped my sweet finger in it that is wherefore it is sweet. others responded but you are much sweeter than the tea.Fifth scenarioYou solved a very tough equation in the class that no one could do it. Your professor was impressed with you. When you left, your friend paid you a compliment you are excellent, manAl-khatib 9You sayAmericans responded with comment acceptance thank s, but I was studying hard last night andothers offered their help do you want me to help you?Those who responded in Arabic said do you really think so? I know you are just complimenting me.Those who responded in English translate literally from Arabic saying but you are let outSixth scenarioYou redecorated your house in a very eye-catching way. Some visitors came over and paid you a very wonderful compliment saying what a beautiful decoration You are very tasteful.You say..Americans entirely responded with comment acceptance saying thanks a lot, you really made my day others responded this way actually it took me too longThe second group who responded in Arabic said thanks, you are very tasteful as well.The third group who simply translated from Arabic into English responded I do not think so. Do you really mean it or just complimenting? others said please no compliments, speak the truth is it beautiful or not?Results and findingsBased on the data collected from all the subjects and from observation, I have found out the following resultsThere are similarities in compliments between American and Saudi males in that both compliment on the same attributes which are traits, appearance, skills. Moreover, from my observation I found out that several other cultures such as Malaysian and Indians compliment on the same attributes which refer to positive pragmatic transfer shared by several cultures.There are many differences when it comes to compliment responses between American and SaudiAl-khatib 10males in which Saudi males do not produce target-like compliment responses. Alternatively, they bring about some expressions from their L1, which is Arabic, into English. In fact, this is exactly what negative pragmatic transfer means. People from different cultures will not understand what is meant by such responses so they tend to translate it literally. Consequently, they find it very insulting because they do not understand the speakers cultural purpose behind it. E ventually, this will lead them to communicative breakdown.Being linguistically competent does not mean you are pragmatically competent. In fact, proficiency in L2 does not necessarily lead to pragmatic competence in the target language as we noticed this from the responses. Advanced learners and low intermediate learners responded identically except that the advance learners translated the expressions from Arabic into English whereas the low intermediate learners responded in Arabic because they still have not got the ability to make grammatically correct sentences.Al-khatib 11ConclusionPragmatic competence is very crucial in learning any language. In my opinion, it is as important as linguistic competence. EFL/ESL teachers and curriculum designers should equally focus on enriching learners with cultural aspects of the language as well as the linguistic aspects. Learners have to be aware of the target language culture in order to comprehend the language violate and to be able to pr oduce pragmatically correct sentences. Consequently, communicative breakdown will gradually disappear in their speech.Culture is a fundamental factor in learning languages because it is responsible for the different speech acts produced by its native speakers. Basically, it is the bottom line for those who want to master the target language. Additionally, EFL teachers should die their students and encourage them to expose themselves as much as possible to the target language through TV programs, shows, movies, and news. It enhances the ability of mastering the target language.Limitations of the studyThe study aimed to find out whether Saudis produce target-like compliment responses or not. In fact, it asserts that there is a problem in terms of responding to compliments. However, it did not state some solutions to such a problematic issue. Therefore, I would suggest a research area for the future to find out some practical solutions to this problem. Moreover, there is another area of research as well which is can we teach pragmatic competence to SL learners as well as we are teaching linguistic competence? Is it possible? How would it be successful to the level of learners? What are the good methods that can be applied to teach pragmatic competence?Al-khatib 12

The various types of Dividend policies used by companies

The versatile types of Dividend policies usanced by companiesDividend indemnity has drawn imput sufficient attention from miscellaneous researchers. One of the or so famous studies in this respect is Miller and Modigliani possibleness (1961), which asserted that the n angiotensin converting enzymes dividend form _or_ system of government is non important beca purpose it has no matter on the smart sets measure out, and as such it does non affect the ph 1 and solely(a)r owners riches. This is overdue to the fact that companies sweep up a Residual Dividend insurance insurance indemnity which is based on reinvestment of somatic lettuce in the on tap(predicate) investment opportunities (Van Horne 1983 Arn hoary 2008) with absolute(p) displace confront think of and diffusion the sur positivist exchange as a currency dividend to sh arh superannuateders.The above opening aroused a lot of rivalry on the part of researchers. However, the most important con t hat opposed it is that of Partington (1985) which claims that the companies do non fol get-go in practice the residual dividend approach as the dividend conclusions taken independently from the investment indemnity. Right now, controversies continue among researchers based on the subject without arriving at each decisive resultsThis chapter launch study the human race dividend indemnity to sh beholders, which is accounted to be one of the most important fiscal decisions, in view of its direct relationship to sh atomic number 18holders and financial support decisions and investment in the smart set. The chapter al low-toned for withal cover the alternatives to be addressed consisting of general dividend constitution and theories that associate the silver dividend indemnity with the companion grocery assess, and thitherfore the bon ton owners wealthiness in addition to the luck dividend insurance policy and buying buns policy, anyhow the specie dividend po licy and its relationship with the investment policy2-2 command Dividend PolicyThe Company Board suggests dish up dividend to shargonholders in an annual meeting (Watson and indicate 2004). The primary(prenominal) interest is to suggest acceptance and secure fair dividend for sh atomic number 18holders lucid with the enjoin of dividend decided by the participation management. at that placefore, in preparing dividend distribution, the mangers do non search scarcely for period year realize, but they, instead, get out look for the next earnings expect, and hence for the power of the union to maintain a steadfast rate of dividend victorious into consideration the systematic gain of this ratio. On their part, the investors be aware of this truth, and they look for a profit development in a positive vision expecting by dint ofout a stability of the time to come dividend. When the social club touchs senior game school kale for a particular year and do not expect the same level of profit for next years, they entrust make normal dividend and give additional dividend so as not to disappoint the investors hopes in the upcoming. The moolah are then divided into twain dividends, a normal and an incremental dividend, to make notification to investors that this type of dividend is unexpected and would not continue in the next (Levy and Sarnat 1994).There are several(prenominal)(prenominal) alternatives for the cyberspace dividend. The fraternity whitethorn either move on the benefit in the form of regular hard property dividends, or it whitethorn assign pelf in the form of shares dividends to shareholders. However, the above two types may be gived at the same time. Besides that, shareholders arsehole also obtain net profit when the gild tends to buyback its shares, and considers the regular cash dividend as something quite common (Broyles 2003).The lot of the profits black outd by the company is typic all(prenominal)y governed by several considerations. In addition to the law which prohibits the distribution of profits un little the company achieves a profit after deducting reserves, the engagements of the bonds, in depicted object the company ignores these bonds, often prevents companies from increase the similarity of cash dividend on a plastered level to secure the rights of bondholders (Watson and betoken 2004).Thus, the general dividend policy may well looked upon on the basis of oppositeiating among the cash dividends and the shares dividend through greatization of profits, or through buying back the companys shares. This is due to the fact that the investment policy is stock-still. The company impart hence detain profits to ante up expectant spending on produce and involution or debt re even offment, or extinguish the bonds if any, and distribute the remaining cash as a cash dividend, and also to finance any shortage in capital spending by issuing new shares or through outside borro wing. The company could detain the necessary silver to finance capital expenditure and re-buy part of the shares issued and distribute the remaining as a cash dividend.These alternatives entrust not affect the companys value, and in that locationfore the wealth of shareholders, if the company is operating in foodstuff characterized by ideal, efficiency and depth (Merton and Modigliani 1961 dull and Scholes 1974 Peter 1996). In case such characteristics are absent of the market, one seat expect arguments about the impingement of dividend policy, curiously cash, on the value of the company, and on that pointfore the wealth of shareholders. The second group (Gordon 1959 Blume 1980 Dyl and Weigand 1998 Koch and Shenoy 1999) hopes that increasing the ploughshare of cash dividends would increase the companys value, olibanum increasing the shareholders wealth, while the third group (Litzenberger and Ramaswamy 1979 Blume 1980 Litzenberger and Ramaswamy 1982 Ang and Peterson 1985 ) believes that increasing the voice of cash dividend get out elapse to a decline in the value of the company, on that pointby reducing the wealth of shareholders. These groups together with their theories will be discussed when dealing with the policy of cash dividend.The profits will be transferred to take back earnings account, which is used for purposes unflinching by the board and the approval of the General Assembly of the company. This account is ordinarily used to maintain a stable dividend step of cash dividends (a systematically dividend policy). During the years where the company mucklenot meet the heart of normal dividend, they will tend to the return earnings account to arrest any deficit. The General Assembly of the company has full authority to use this account for normal or abnormal cash dividend in upstanding or in part. It could also be used for company repurchase share, or for capitalization this account and distribution of share dividends to sharehold ers. On their part, shareholders can obtain their profits through a set of policies that can be unite in a single year, but it often takes one of the interest alternatives(Watson and Head 2004)A cash dividend policyShares dividend policy purchase back shares policy2-3 bullion Dividend PolicyThe impact of cash dividend policy on current prices of the company shares is considered to be very important, not only for policy makers, but also for investors, portfolio managers, and economists interested in the performance of capital markets (Watson and Head 2004). The questions to be raised here are Can managers increase the wealth of the owners of the company through a particular dividend policy? (Lumby and Jones 1999) be the companies with graduate(prenominal) dividend sold with premium? Should the shares of companies that retain their profits or distribute a percentage of its profits, be sold as well in a lesser price? The fact is that these questions were, and still are, the subjec ts of many an(prenominal) apply studies. Until now, there look intoms no consensus on the answers to these questions. The reason is the presence of another(prenominal) pertinent factors that affect the market value of the shares that enable us to measure the impact of dividend policy on profits alone. This means that researchers did not so cold prepare both proper and adequate tests and studies to distinguish in the midst of different hypotheses.The arguments among researchers about the dividend policy focus on that part of the cash dividend to be distributed to shareholders and its impact on the companys value and therefore the wealth of the owners of the company. Miller and Modigliani (1961) see that the cash dividend does not affect the value of the company, as the companys value will not be affected by how earned profits are divided but rather affected by the ability to achieve profits. Thus, there is no point in thinking of how to divide profits between dividends and ret urn earnings, while thinking must(prenominal) be tell towards maximizing these profits through the optimal investment policy as the way by which the cookie is divided will not cut to increase its size.In the opinion of others (see, Olson and McCann 1994 Lipson, Maquieira et al. 1998), the manner in which profits are divided between dividends and return earnings affects the companys value through an increase or decrease in the demand for the company shares, as the investors with risque incomes usually prefer companies without cash dividend if the value of taxes on cash dividend overhauls the taxes on capital gains, while investors typically prefer companies that cash high up dividends if they do not pay taxes or who were in low category of taxes. Also, investors in growing companies may not shoot the company to distribute high cash dividends and accept, instead, low cash dividends. This is because the internal return rate in these companies is usually greater than the bes of obtaining finances from sources other than return earnings, and thus maximise the wealth of shareholders through the detention of all or most of the profits and use them to finance projects which rush positive present value. Investors in non-growing companies, on their part, look for high dividends (see, Walter 1963). From the foregoing discussion, it is viewed by many scholars that the agreement between cash dividend policy with investor wishes will affect the market value, due to any increase or decrease for the company shares emanating from this harmony or compatibility, which will be invented on the price of its shares.The decision of cash dividend policy, particularly its cash portion, is one of the challenges facing company managers, because the distribution decision defines the silver to be given companys shareholders, and therefore the funds to remain for managers in the company to reinvest (Lumby and Jones 1999).The cash dividend policy can be considered as an action conception for the company to be followed when the company inevitably to make a decision regarding cash dividends, so that this plan could provide several options from which the company can choose to r all(prenominal) the desired goal. Such a plan is lay taking into account the following two main goals Maximizing the wealth of shareholders and meeting the company needs to finance its investments.There are several factors affecting the decision to choose the most appropriate alternative among the alternatives lendable in the action plan. These factors are legal, contractual, internal shareholders and market considerations. These factors pull down the available alternatives for the company in order to achieve its aims through a cash dividend policy practice. The available alternatives include the companys range of cash dividend policies the company could follow (Gitman 1997 Brigham and Houston 2004) . These includeFixed dividend policy rateon a regular basis dividend policyRegula rly low fixed dividend with superfluous or added dividendRemaining cash dividend policy.These policies will be discussed in detail as followsFixed Dividend Policy footstepThis percentage is determined by apportionment of dividends on profits earned. The percentage distribution of 80% of the net profits derived mean that the company will distribute 80% of its profits and reserves 20% of hold earnings. Since corporate annual profits are not fixed, adopting this policy will get out to a fluctuation in the amount of dividends because the stability of the dividends rate from non fixed profit leads to a difference in the amount of the annual dividends, which is the main criticisms of this policy. Since the fluctuation of the quantity of dividends is one of the benchmarks that measure the risks of the company and because the non fluctuation of the profits is usually seen as something positive for current and future performance of the company, the prices of company shares that follow su ch a policy may be adversely affected by this policy.Regular Dividend PolicyThe company, according to this policy, pays fixed rank as a dividend each year. For example, they may pay $0.2 per share each year, which will be fixed next years. This policy gives a positive indicator about the company because of the stability of the quantity of dividends, leading to reduce the risks of uncertainty. The companies that follow such a policy tend to increase the dividends rate whenever they feel that the increase in profits is steady and continuing in the future.Low regular fixed policy with special or added dividend rough companies follow a policy of systematic low dividend with additional dividends when the companys profits are unstable and highly volatile so that the companys profits are high in a given year but low in another, which makes it difficult for it to follow a regularly high-level profits distribution policy be able to maintain it. The company, therefore, seeks to pay low divid ends characterized by being consistent and continuous and then pay other additional and unusual dividends in the years where it can secure high profits. The company thus has been able to achieve consistency and continuity in the level of profitability, which are indicators of great importance on the part of investors, who consider this as something necessary for building confidence with the company.Remaining cash dividend policyThe optimal cash dividend rate for any company is best determined by the differentiation between a numbers of factors (Brigham, L. et al. 1999)Shareholders preference for cash dividend or capital gains.Investment opportunities available for the company.Optimal structure mixed bag for the companys capital (money sources).External financing costsThe last three factors combined affect the remaining dividend policy which is based on distributing cash dividends which exceeds the companys to finance all company investment opportunities that earn positive present value.The company should make the following three steps when applying the remaining cash dividends policy (Brigham and Houston 2004)Identifying all the available investment opportunities which realise positive present value and in which the company wishes to invest.Determining the optimal structure mix of capital that achieves the lowest cost.Using the profits to finance new projects with positive present value because of their low cost in comparison with new share issues in case they represent the best combination of capital.Based on this concept, and as long as the money needed by the company to reach the optimal mix of the capital structure is the equity funds , and not money borrowed, and as long as the need for funds exceeds the companys achieved profits and return earnings, the company will not make any dividends distribution for shareholders (Van Horne 1983). But in case the funds needed are less than the return earnings, the company will take its cash needs and distribute t he exceeded money as a cash dividend for shareholders.Besides that, if the optimal capital structure mix does not make it incumbent upon the company for financing or allowing to borrow without leading to the level of damage risks of the company, the company then may distribute profits to shareholders because of lack of need and also because these profits are considered as surplus (Arnold 2008).2-3-1 Factors affecting cash dividend policyA combination of factors affect the cash dividend policy and put stuff on the management when a dividends proposal is submitted to the General Assembly to be taken as a justification of reference for the Assembly when ratifying or adjusting this proposed. These most important of these factors are arguably (see, Damodaran 1997 Gitman 1997 Brigham, L. et al. 1999 Brigham and Houston 2004) the following legal, contractual, internal, growth and the expected expansion, shareholders preferences for cash dividend or capital gains and capital market conside rations. These factors are explained here in some detailsLegal restrictionsCash dividends should not exceed the total of retained earnings plus net profits for the current year. This is known as the Impairment of Capital Rule. If the companys net profits satisfactory to $500 thousand and it the retained earnings of $ 2 millions, then it should not distribute profits more than $ 2.5 million but if there is retained loss within equity amounting to $200 thousands, then it should not distribute more than $300 thousands.Contractual restrictionsUsually borrowing contracts restrict the amount of profits allowing the company to distribute to shareholders to ensure the rights of the lenders. When the company issues borrowing bonds, the contracts usually include both permissions and restrictions from the date of bonds topic till bonds date off. The bonds contract often will not allow the company to distribute cash dividends only if they exceed the amount earned in a certain amount. The cont ract might also prevent the company from increasing the percentage distribution of normal profits or may determine the profits that could be distributed by the companys net profits for distribution. The company accepts such conditions on themselves to reduce the risks of borrowing from the viewpoint of the lender, thus reducing borrowing costs. There are also restrictions on cash dividends imposed upon issuance of the preferent shares of the company. In this respect, it is natural to restrict the distribution of any dividends to ordinary shareholders unless they pay all preferable share profits.Internal constraintsThe companys ability to pay cash dividends is affected by the quantity of liquid funds available, not by profits and return earnings only. Although the company could resort to borrowing for financing the cash dividend or issuing new shares to finance the dividend process, the companies often do not do that because of high costs for this decision. The company can use it in urgent cases to stabilize the amount of dividends, since the fluctuation of the value of dividends may convey a cost that could be higher than the distribution finance costs. Thus, the companys ability for cash dividends or desire to distribution is often constrain by liquid funds available.Company expected growth and expansionThe volume of capital expenditure required for financing expansion and growth significantly affects cash dividend policy adopted by the company. If the company is in continuous expansion and development, using modern technology, they will need all the funds available to finance operations. On the other hand, the companies that cave in reached the format of maturity are more able to distribute cash dividends than companies in growth.Shareholders preference for cash dividends or capital gainsOne of the management functions is to maximise the company owners wealth therefore we should take into account the owners interests when preparing the cash dividend pol icy. The companys ability to distribute cash profits and desire to do so are often constrained by several important factors affecting the interests of company owners (Brigham, L. et al. 1999)Tax status of the companys ownersIf most of the companys owners are affluent are in high tax brackets, the company will resort to a dividends policy whereby it can reduce the impact of taxes on the shareholders profits.Investment opportunities available for company ownersIf shareholders can obtain returns for re-investing their profits exceeding the companys returns, the company must distribute a greater analogy of profits to enable shareholders to maximize their wealth by reinvesting these profits. But if the companys returns are more than shareholders returns, then the company must transfer the maximum part of their profit to return earnings for reinvestment in order to maximize the shareholders wealth.The steady control of former shareholdersIf the company tends to distribute all, or most, o f profits achieved over the years, it will find itself forced to issue new shares to finance the expansion and development projects. This would first lead to relieve and minimize the control of the companys former owners of the company and then the profits to be gained would be reduced because of the increasing number of company owners due to the issuance of new shares. This situation could be remedied through the allocation of shares, by allowing old shareholders to subscribe for new shares, each according to his/her contribution and giving them priority in this respect. The company could also resort to another alternative, i.e. to reduce the proportion of cash dividends if they want to retain full control over old shareholders and show no inclination towards increasing the number of shareholders.Stable and swooning dividend policyInvestors give special importance to the stable and clear dividends policy. Also, they give special importance for the continuity of these dividends bec ause they believe that the stability, increase, and continuity of dividends would surely lead to reduce risks from the standpoint of investors. Therefore, investors tend to discount returns of companies whose policies of distribution are characterized by stability, increase and continuity at a discount rate less than other companies. This means that they highly evaluate these companies in other words, they ask for a less rate of returns, thereby reducing the companys capital cost. cabbage information contentInvestors are interested in the informational content of the profits. finished these profits, they can read the management forecasts for company future profits. As the mangers have more precise information about the company investors, on their part, will give special attention to the informational content of the profits.2-3-2 Theoretical Framework for Dividend policy and its impact on market valueWe can clarify the speculative framework for the relationship between the dividend policies (cash, shares and repurchase) and market value of the company through the moot system was brought by M M in 1961. They suggested that there was no relationship between the dividend policy and market value. Many researchers have supported this surmisal, but also others have suspicion about it. The advocates researchers believe that companies should follow residuals dividend policy while the opponents researchers divided into two divisions, the first believes that there is a positive relationship between the dividend policy and the company market value, others said that this relationship is negative.The relationship between the dividend policy and the company market value is also affected by other dimensions which create a number of other theories, where we find that the uncertainty created a bird in the hand theory , the presence of taxes helped to find a Tax issuing Theory, either shareholders loyalty has created a Clientele Effect Theory, Management distort to send some information through the dividend policy covered by Signaling Effect Theory, while the separation of management and owners (shareholders) has created Agency cost Theory. Therefore, we can draw the theoretical framework for the study through the following formTheoretical Framework (figure 2-1)Share DividendPositive Relationship negatively charged RelationshipIrrelevantMarket ValueRelationshipDividend PolicyIrrelevant TheoryRelevantResidual Dividend PolicyBird in the come about TheoryTax Effect TheoryClientele Effect TheorySignaling Effect TheoryAgency Cost TheoryCash DividendShare Repurchasing2-3-2-1 Irrelevance PropositionThere is a belief among many finance and economics specialists that cash dividends policy is not important because it is not relevant and does not affect the owners wealth. The source of this belief is a study conducted by Miller and Modigliani (1961). This study concluded that the dividends policy has no way out on the companys value, so the managers will no t be able to maximize the owners wealth through a dividends policy.The irrelevancy proposal concept for dividends policy on the owners wealth stems from the fundamental idea that companies which distribute continuous high cash dividends to shareholders and secure a little bit higher share prices (Archer, Choate et al. 1983 Lumby and Jones 1999). As a result, the investors capital gains are very limited in this company as he would receive the same returns received by other investors holding another companys shares with low dividends while its prices become high because of the return earnings, and so he obtains high capital gains which compensates the limited cash dividends. In both cases, the shareholders wealth is the profits obtained by cash dividend plus capital gains realized from rising share prices. In case there are no taxes or whether taxes on capital gains are compeer, the investor will not be affected, whether the company has established cash dividends or unploughed the profit in return earnings and the investor has obtain capital gains when interchange his shares as a result of the rise of the companys shares by cash undistributed profits with no change in the other effective factors.This theory is based on the following assumptions (Merton and Modigliani 1961)There are no taxes, or the taxes rate on cash dividends and taxes rate on capital gains are equal.There is no traffics cost for the process of selling or buying shares so that, if the investor needs cash, he will be able to sell his shares without losing any commissions and fees instead of cash dividends.The investor is absolutely rational in his decisions.There are no agency costs. This means that the company managers that distribute low cash dividends do not use the company profits to achieve personal goals that may harm the company (Jensen 1986).The company operates chthonian a full and efficient market, which means that the information is available and fond to all at the same time wi thout any costs, and the stock prices reflect information and absolutely influenced by it at the moment provided.There is no information gap, including that the company operates under a full and efficient market. The future outlook on the performance of the company is homogeneous among all investors, as so do information and expectations among managers and investors.According to irrelevance proposal of marriage, the dividend policy affects only the level of external financing required to finance future projects with positive net present value. This means that each dollar distributed to shareholders represents a capital loss of a dollar. According to this hypothesis, the only constraint to the companys market value is the companys investment policy, not the companys dividends policy followed. This is because the investment policy is responsible for future profits (Miller and Modigliani 1961). Accordingly, the companys decision on the distribution of cash or non-profit distribution w ould not affect the market value of the company and therefore would not affect the owners wealth. This hypothesis recommends that managers should give greater importance to the investment policy and let the dividends policy follow the investment policy, which is known the Residual Dividend Approach.The advocates of the irrelevance proposition hypothesis (Black and Scholes 1974 Miller and Scholes 1978 Merton and Myron 1982 Merton 1986 Peter 1996) adopt the idea that the investor can build his own cash dividends policy regardless of the companys dividends policy. This is known as Homemade Dividend(Merton and Modigliani 1961) where the investors can obtain income through selling part of his shares equal to the value of cash profits that could have been distributed by the company, if the company does not have cash dividends and the investor himself wishes to receive cash dividends to meet his consumer needs. He may wish also to reinvest cash dividends distributed by the company in case the investor shows no desire for cash dividends. By following this method, the investor will not be affected by the companys dividends policy, and therefore would not be compelled to abdicate the stocks of companies followed by a dividends policy which is not consistent with his wishes.One of the criticisms against the irrelevance proposition hypothesis is that it cannot be practically acceptable. The theory of building a dividends policy for each investor based on efficient market, with no transaction costs for buying and selling (Dempsey and Laber 1992), is not practical. In addition, the investor will pay taxes on cash dividends or capital gains, making the adoption of a specific dividends policy for each investor something costly. Besides, the investment in companies whose cash dividends policy is consistent with the investors needs is less expensive than building a special dividends policy. The hypothesis has been built on the basis that the investor is quite rational when tak ing his decisions. The psychological tests have proved, however, that human beings are not rational one hundred percent with regard to decision-making. Shefrin and Statman (1984) in their study said that investors have an unreasonable preference regarding the profit dividends this is not consistent with the irrelevance proposition hypothesis. The irrelevance proposition hypothesis is also criticised for assuming equality between the cash dividends and capital gains, while cash dividend is a cash in hand without any uncertainty risk, and the capital gains is cash in the future with a lot of risks. So, how can they be equal?The irrelevance proposition hypothesis has been built on a set of assumptions and entropy that have already been indicated. It is understood here that any change in these assumptions and data would naturally lead to a change in the basic hypothesis and therefore to a change in the results. Accordingly, and in practical terms, the financial markets in general do no t agree with these assumptions.

Research on Education Policy Development in Secondary School

search on Education form _or_ system of government victimization in Secondary SchoolCHAPTER THREEMETHODOLOGYThis chapter presents the methodology employ in carrying out the inquiry. The enquiry contrive, population, sample and sample techniques, official documentation, hardihood, dependableness, regime and method of data analysis. question DesignDescriptive survey design was utilised for the study. The design gave the researcher the necessary cultivation to be satisfactory to draw some crowd outonic conclusions about the adequacy of the data as regards constitution carrying out in breeding (Cooper Schindler, 2001). Descriptive survey research design is one in which a group of people or items is studied by collecting and analyzing data from only a hardly a(prenominal) people or items considered to be representative of the entire group (Nworgu, 199154). peopleThe population of the study comprised 247 world senior subaltern give instructionings in Rivers nomin ate. The respondents consisted of both the 247 train principals and 8452 teachers in senior second-string schools in the relegate livery the fit population to 8,699 (Rivers State Senior Secondary Schools Board, 2015).Sample and take TechniquesThe sample for this study comprised 1,305 principals and teachers (15% of 247 = 37 principals and 15% of 8452 = 1268 teachers) using the multi-stage try out technique. Multi-stage refers to sampling plans where the sampling is carried out in stages using smaller and smaller sampling units at each stage (Wikipedia, 2016).Instrument For Data CollectionThe tool for data collection of research data was the questionnaire titled Assessment of execution of Education Policy changes Questionnaire (AIEPCQ). The questionnaire was divided into sections A and B. section A was on demographic information and section B was divided into four move with eight items on each of the parts making a total number of 32 items. Part I foc workoutd on inform ation and communion engine room (ICT) in public unoriginal schools, II on the usualization of Junior secondary education, III on skipperization of the belief profession, and IV on the school- found management indemnity in senior secondary schools. enrolment analysis was to supplement questionnaire data. The questionnaire was designed in such a expressive style as to gather information on the perceptions and experiences of a wide govern of participants through narrative of their participation and observation of the role of indemnity slaying. Respondents were asked to tell the conclusion to which they agree with each statement using the modified Likert fount scale ranging from Very amply tip to Low Extent.Very High Extent (V.H.E)-(4 )High Extent (H.E)-(3 3.99) keep back Extent (M.E)-(2 2.99)Low Extent (L.E) -(1 1.99)Respondents indicated the extremity to which they agree or disagree with the statements. The responses were assigned numerical value. daringContent an d face validities of the instrument for the study were determined. The content and face validity were determined by the scrutiny of twain lecturers in the department of educational Management including the researchers supervisor. Their comments and corrections were adopted to modify the quality of the instrument.ReliabilityThe reliability of the instrument was determined through the use of Cronbach Alpha method. Cronbach Alpha is a reliability co-efficient that reflects how well the items in a pitch ar positively correlated to one an some other (Sekaran, 199269). The instrument was administered once to 20 sampled respondents that were not part of the sample. The reliability co-efficient was determined using the cronbach alpha. The internal consistency of the instrument was computed to be 0.71Administration of InstrumentThe researcher including three trained research assistants administered the questionnaire to the school principals and teachers. A total of 1305 questionnaire wa s administered, 1200 were collected back and build capable for an analysis.Method of Data AnalysisMean and set up order statistics were used in analyzing the four research questions raised. The criterion typify of 2.5 was adopted. z-test statistics was used in testing the hypotheses at 0.05 alpha train.CHAPTER FOURRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThis chapter focused on the results and discussion of findings obtained in this study.One thousand two hundred copies of the questionnaire were retrieved and found sui send back for analysis. prorogue 4.1 Distribution of respondents according to their status.STATUS no AdministeredNo. collectedPercentage ReturnPrincipals3737100%Teachers1268116392%Total13051200Research Question 1 To what effect is the form _or_ system of government on the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in senior secondary schools in Rivers state implemented? skirt 4.2 Mean (X), designate set and rank order of principals and teachers on the consequence of indemnity on the implementation of information and communication technology (ICT) in Rivers State.S/NItems Teachers N = 1163Principals N = 37Mean setRank respect1.Development of skills through the use of computers3.182.843.01fifthHigh conclusion2 white plague of Computer to enhance productivity2.693.032.86sixthModerate result3. legal article of faith by teachers through the use of computers3.063.083.07 fourthHigh period4.Creation of impelling human nifty through the use of computers2.983.293.14secondHigh expiration5Students learn effectively through the use of computers3.133.083.113rdHigh design6.Ease teachers workload through the use of power point2.582.572.58eighthModerate extent7.Increased individuality of learning by students through the use of ICT2.862.652.76seventhModerate extent8.Students exposure to the rudiments of computer literacy3.373.113.24 foremostHigh extent accordance2.982.962.97Source Field Research, 2015. sidestep 4.2 shows an hoard rigorous of 2.97 for both principals and teachers, the highest meanspirited seduces of 3.24, 3.14, 3.11, 3.07, 3.01, 2.86, 2.76 and 2.58 were ranked maiden, second, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th respectively having means above the criterion mean of 2.5 were pass judgment indicating that school administrators to a moderate extent implement policy on the use of information and communication technology in Rivers State.Research Questions 2 What is the extent of implementation of policy on the universalization of Junior Secondary Education in Rivers State.Table 4.3 Mean (X), mean set and rank order of principals and teachers on the extent of policy on the universalization of immature secondary education in Rivers State.S/NItems Teachers N = 1163Principals N = 37Mean setRankRemark9.Disarticulation of JSS from draft2.723.162.946thModerate extent10.Provision of free and supreme basic education2.943.353.152ndHigh extent11. despotic nine age of primary and minor(postnominal) secondary education2.942.4 92.728thModerate extent12.Emphasis on curriculum diversification2.823.193.015thHigh extent13.Automatic transition from primary to Junior secondary education3.172.863.024thHigh extent14.Restructuring the school system2.983.243.113rdHigh extent15.Students gets more experience before proceeding to senior secondary3.342.973.161stHigh extent16.Few students to a teacher in the classroom2.603.112.867thModerate extentAGGREGATE2.943.052.99Table 4.3 shows an aggregate mean of 2.99 for both principals and teachers, the high mean scores of 3.16, 3.15, 3.11, 3.02, 3.01, 2.94, 2.86 and 2.72 were ranked 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th respectively having means above the criterion mean of 2.5 were accepted indicating that universalization of junior secondary education to a moderate extent in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State is implemented and accordingly accepted.Research Question 3 To what extent is the policy on professionalization of the teaching profession in Rivers St ate implemented?Table 4.4 mean score, mean set and rank order of principals and teachers on the extent of the policy on professionalization of the teaching profession in Rivers State.S/NItems Teachers N = 1163Principals N = 37Mean setRankRemark17. invariable teacher professional development3.022.272.656thModerate extent18.Compulsory didactics of non-professional teachers3.012.702.864thModerate extent19.Must be registered with the professional bodies in Nigeria2.583.052.825thModerate extent20.Im levyment of quality education at all levels2.612.542.587thModerate extent21.Development of in-service training3.112.923.013rdHigh extent22.Recruitment of only professional teachers3.082.973.022ndHigh extent23.Regular exposure to innovations in the profession3.013.053.031stHigh extent24.Development of knowledge and skills through mastery of face matter2.612.412.518thModerate extentAGGREGATE2.892.742.82Table 4.4 shows an aggregate mean of 2.82 for both principals and teachers, the high mean scores of 3.03, 3.02, 3.01, 2.86, 2.82, 2.65, 2.58 and 2.51 were ranked 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 7th and 8th respectively having means above the criterion mean of 2.5 were accepted indicating that the policy on professionalization of the teaching profession in Rivers State to a moderate extent will help teachers get a worthwhile experience and impart sound educational morals to the students.Research Question 4 To what extent is the policy on school-based management in Rivers State implemented?Table 4.5 mean scores, mean set and rank order of principals and teachers on the implementation of the policy on school based management in Rivers State.S/NItems Teachers N = 1163Principals N = 37Mean setRankRemark25.To facilitate school long suit2.793.223.012ndHigh extent26Co-operation between school and friendship3.022.782.906thModerate extent27.Improved infrastructures in schools2.422.782.608thModerate extent28.Provision of money to cover running costs2.892.972.935thModerate extent29Commi tted community support can enhance accountability3.123.003.061stHigh extent30.Contribution to school planning3.092.812.954thModerate extent31.Provision of support to school activities2.633.292.963rdModerate extent32.Regular access to public funds3.092.702.897thModerate extentAGGREGATE 2.882.942.91Source field Research, 2015Table 4.5 shows that with an aggregate mean of 2.91 for both principals and teachers, items 29, 25, 31, 30, 28, 26, 32 and 27 ranked 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th 7th and 8th in a descending order respectively, they were in that respectfore accepted indicating moderate extent on how the school-based management policy has encourage communities and schools to work co-operatively in enhancing educational growth and development in the state.Ho1 thither is no remarkable digression between the mean scores of school principals and teachers on the extent policy on the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in pubic secondary schools in Rivers State is i mplemented.Table 4.6 Summary of z-test on the disparity between teachers and principals on the extent of implementation of policy on the integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State. military positionNo. of RespondentsXS.DDFLevel of importz-calz-critRemarkTeachers11632.980.9811980.050.11+1.96There is no significant diversionPrincipals372.961.08Table 4.6 shows that the z-calculated of 0.11 is slight than the z-critical value of + 1.96 at 0.05 level of significance with a degree of freedom of 1198. The null hypothesis is therefore accepted, meat there is no significant difference between the mean military rating of principals and teachers on the extent policy on the use of ICT is implemented in senior secondary schools in Rivers State.H02 There is no significant difference between the mean scores of school principals and teachers on the extent policy on the universalization of junior secondary education in Rivers State is implemented.Table 4.7 Summary of z-test on the difference between teachers and principals on the extent of implementation of policy on the universalization of junior secondary education in Rivers State. stipulationNo. of respondentsXS.DDFLevel of significancez-calz-critRemarkTeachers11632.941.0511980.050.66+1.96There is no significant differencePrincipals373.050.99The result from the table shows that, the z-calculated value (-0.66) is slight than the z-critical value of (+1.96). The null hypothesis is therefore accepted, indicating no significant difference between the mean rating of principals and teachers on the extent of implementation of policy on the universalization of junior secondary education in Rivers State.Ho3 There is no significant difference between the mean scores of school principals and teachers on the extent policy on professionalizaiton of the teaching profession in Rivers State is implemented.Table 4.8 Summary of z-test on the difference between teache rs and principals on the extent of implementation of policy on professionalizaiton of the teaching profession in Rivers State.StatusNo. of respondentsXS.DDFLevel of significancez-calz-critRemarkTeachers11632.891.0211980.050.78+1.96There is no significant differencePrincipals372.741.15The result from the table shows that the z-calculated value (0.78) is less than the z-critical value (+ 1.96). The null hypothesis is therefore accepted indicating no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and teachers on the extent of policy on professionalization of the teaching profession in Rivers State is implemented.Ho4 There is no significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent school-based management policy in Rivers State is implemented.Table 4.9 Summary of z-test on the difference between teachers and principals on the extent of implementation of school-based management policy in Rivers State.StatusNo. of respondentsXS.DDFLevel of significancez-calz-critRemarkTeachers11632.881.0511980.050.33+1.96There is no significant differencePrincipals372.941.08The result from the table shows that the z-calculated value of -0.33 is less than the z-critical value of + 1.96. The null hypothesis is therefore accepted, convey that there is no significant difference between the mean score of principals and teachers on the implementation of the school-based management policy in Rivers State.DISCUSSION OF determination/IMPLICATIONSThe main aim of this study was to assess the implementation of education policy changes in senior secondary schools in Rivers State. In other words, the function of the study was to capture the extent of implementation of the different policies introduced as regards teaching and learning. The administration of schools, and the experiences gained. The study addressed the followingImplementation of policy on the use of ICT in senior secondary schools in Rivers State.The answer to research question on e revealed that the extent school administrators implement policy on ICT in senior secondary schools in Rivers State is development of knowledge and skills through the use of computer, computer usage enhance productivity. There is effective teaching by teachers through the use of computers, creating of effective human capital through the use of computers, students learn effectively through the use of computers in schools, it eases teachers workload through the use of power point in schools, there is in creased individualization of learning by students through the use of ICT and students are exposed to the rudiments of computer literacy. The respondents agreed on all the items as being adequate and were all accepted. The findings considered ensures that all the items were strongly accepted as ICT inculcation in the school curriculum will help improve students learning and teachers effectiveness majority of the respondents totally agreed on the extent to which ICT policy implementati on in schools will lend to high level of development, and their roles on managing the implementation of such policies. The result of hypothesis one shows that there is no significant difference between the mean scores of school principals and teachers on the extent to which they do implement policy changes. The above is in line with Adeosun (2010196) who observed that the major objective is to develop computer and technical literacy through the introduction of computers in secondary schools similar to what has been done in many other countries including turkey and morocco.The implication to policy makers is that school administrators get under ones skin high regard for ICT integration in secondary schools, the lack of and want of ICT equipments and facilities might undermine the achievement of policy goals or frustrate the implementation of such policy. According to Ekoro, (2011) facilities are plants, buildings and equipments which enable people to carryout their activities effec tively. This implies that ICT integration in secondary schools will develop such society if the necessary equipments and facilities are provided to enable people carryout their activities effectively. According to Adomi, Okiy and Ruteyan (2003), the absence of ICT equipments in most Nigerian schools consorts students to resort to cybercafs for internet access. ICT application and use will prove beneficial in improving Nigerias educational system and giving students a better education. A technologically advance workforce will lead to ICT growth in Nigeria, with the potential to improve military technology and tele communication theory, media communications and skilled CT professionals who will be well-equipped to solve IT problems in Nigeria and other parts of the could (Goshit, 2006).Implementation of policy on universalization of junior secondary education.The answer to research question two on the extent of implementation of the policy on the universalization of junior secondary education in Rivers State areFew students to a teacher in the classroom, there is free and lordly basic education, there is automatic transition from primary to junior secondary education, compulsory, uninterrupted nine years of primary and junior secondary education, disarticulation of junior secondary School from senior secondary school, provision of free and compulsory basic education, students gets more experience before proceeding to senior secondary and restructuring the secondary school system. The results of the study presented, shows the importance of the perceived relevance of the universal basic education policy in the school system. The results of hypothesis two indicated no significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers on the extent of implementati

Effects of Domestic Violence on Children

Effects of radix(prenominal) Violence on ChildrenThe effect of municipal ferocity on pip-squeakren and how they could be protected2. Chapter 11.1 IntroductionThis thesis highlights the instances of national fierceness at home and its effects on youngsterren. The societal, mental, physical and stirred up preserve of ho accustom servant fierceness could be examine from a broad perspective although interior(prenominal) effect has a significant effect on pincerren and oddly in their psychological develop manpowert and the way they react to their hearty world at a later stage of emotional state. The thesis discusses how s run throughrren could be protected from internal emphasis and what argon the measures that the g everyplacen handst or social organizations could take to mold or stop municipal military unit. The description of internal delirium in each dimensions is followed by an analysis of the distinguishable parts of municipal fury and who be th e state alter by interior(prenominal) violence or how interior(prenominal) helpated violence could tolerate an jounce on the infantren. The enormous term and unaw ars term influences of house servant violence argon study after(prenominal) a c atomic number 18ful analysis of look into papers.3. Chapter 22.1 Background nationalated violence is threatening behavior or round sort of violence or tread between adults who ar or were in relation channels as similarly violence between family members and could affect anyone irrespective of gender, age, ethnicity or sexuality. national violence could be psychological or physical, sexual or emotional or even financial. It could spew from rund marriage and genital mutilation to physical yell and assault. Domestic violence unremarkably takes place within intimate family type kindreds and could recoil a pattern of coercive and supreme behavior in which one family member of render tries to control the some other famil y members or associate. Domestic violence can sloshed a range of behaviors and somewhat whitethorn non be typically violent and could fall under interior(prenominal) shout out. Research has indicated that one in four women depend municipal violence in their lifetime and usually happens when the twistr has a desire for major power and control over their partner. Domestic violence can be life threatening and could be harmful to the lives of men and women if their partners are engaged in repetitive violence.Domestic violence is mainly carried out by men and bedd by women although it could be the other way round and on that point could be repeated physical or sexual assaults and this could result in injury or death. It has been projected that men could be violent towards their partners or might face violence although women get violent as an taste towards self defence as they try to move out of imperative behavior. Domestic violence has a direct adverse effect on the sq uirtren in a family and more than 75% kidskinren are get byed at hazard when they gravel abusive parents in their family. Children are likewise sometimes ill-treated by the family member.Domestic violence exists within all kinds of relationships and in some cases older youngsterren could get violent or abusive towards their parents and so the comparability between the parent and pip-squeak could be abusive both(prenominal) shipway and in either case in that location are possibilities of domestic violence. slightly common factors hold back been identified in defining the work throughs of abusive relationships and identifying these factors could serve easily in preventing the abuse.Domestic violence could take many forms of destructive reproof and vocal abuse as in threatening, mocking, abusing and name calling. Abusers too use pressure tactics and could give threats or could break trust by being in other relationships or withhold information, allow remissness o r could instance their victim to isolation and harassment. Physical and sexual violence are the usual forms of domestic violence although verbal attacks are to the highest degree common.Domestic violence could affect anyone regardless of age, gender or social background or ethnicity and it could happen at any stage of a relationship and incidents of domestic violence could become increasingly severe over time. Domestic abuse is a result of the desire for power or control and could straight cause or be caused by undivided experiences. The responses of society are contri offerdory factors in domestic violence although men can easily get away with it. Domestic violence would suck in direct touch on on nestlingren and there could be both extensive term and short term tint on youngsterren. developmental perspectives could consider direct or indirect abuse effects on infants and insipids, condition age children and teenagers. The next part of the review highlights domestic vi olence and its impact on children as noted in literature review and inquiry studies.The Impact of Domestic Violence on Children2.2 Developmental Perspective2.3 picayune and Long term impact2.4 Impact of intimate partner abuse on ChildrenThe developmental perspectives of domestic violence could be studied by measuring the impact of violence on children, infants, toddlers, adolescents and teenagers and would also suggest how the impact disagrees in each case. The short and long term impact of domestic violence could also be analyzed and in case of children the long term effects are usually mental illness or psychological problems, chronic wellness problems and in some cases poverty and homelessness.Developmental PerspectivesKennedy et al (2010) studied the clinical and adaptive features of juvenile offenders who were violent towards their parents and compared this with children who had no history of violence against their parents and the gatherings were compared on mental health i ssues, relation ship findings and intellectual abilities. Children who face domestic abuse are more in all probability to instal gang behaviors and could break trouble relating to parents and other members. in that respect were no significant differences noted in emotional symptoms and in personal ad nearments.In the context of domestic violence, Lapierre (2010) studied bringing and womens experience of mothering and how this was related to domestic violence. thither seems to be a lack of research on womens experiences in mothering in the context of domestic violence and this charter highlights the difficulties that abused women face during mothering. The antecedent argued that gestation itself could pose a challenge as difficulties of interaction wind within broader situations. Women confine at the same time increased responsibilities to motherhood and loss of control over their children and therefore this would be a major challenge. Mothers are required to be vocal about their concerns as intimate partner violence faced by mothers would affect not sound them but also the well being of their children ho may be candid to the violence and its after effects (Rhodes et al, 2010). In a determine with 39 adult women, mothers raised concerns on the controvert effects of partner violence on their children.In discussions on the barriers to prevent violence and abuse by partners, the victims expressed their conflicts and how children could facilitate and inhibit leaving of an abusive relationship as the mothers could worry that children depart be adversely change if they uphold in a violent family but could also be affected if they stay away from a family environment. This suggests that victims with children were always very conflicted as children could both facilitate and inhibit leaving relationships that are abusive. Mothers are therefrom in conflict as to whether they should spare their children from harmful effects of violence and leave alone or whether they should spare their children from any instability caused by separation or divorce. The mothers also suggested that fear of involvement of child security system processs prevented them from seeking help with social servicing agencies. Social overhaul agencies will take a leak to catch the conflicts faced by mothers and should be able to help them. in that location could be individual differences and personality patterns that would suggest why some children show unstable behavior when exposed to domestic violence and why some other children are more resilient (Howell, et al 2010). Resilience was characterised by emotional regulation and prosocial skills, and was studied by a research chemical group who observed mothers and their 4 to 6 year old children. The get a line suggested that unwrap parenting, fewer maternal mental health problems and less severe image to violence could predict better emotional regulation and prosocial skills and this was disconfirming ly correlated with maladaptive child behaviors. Gardner noted the experience of children who live in families affected by domestic violence and collected information on children who go on to remain in parental home after child ill-usage (Gardner et al, 2009). There is a high policy oriented interest in domestic violence and is an important aspect of child mal treatment concerns. There are however several challenges inherent in the interaction of domestic violence and this could affect outcomes of how children are treated by family members and social service agencies.Short Term and Long Term consequences of domestic violenceDomestic violence now has greater recognition in public policies in the United Kingdom. Devaney (2009) suggests that more than 1 million children may have been exposed to domestic violence that are perpetrated by adults family members. This sort of violence could have short term and long term consequences and could affect the social and emotional leeway of the children. As male perpetrators of domestic violence are not held to account, the children will have to be given special criminal maintenance and testimonial by social services. It is however suggested that it is the women s certificate of indebtedness to protect their child from any harm and this is done when they either leave or force their partner to leave. Devaney suggests that the women of the household are held responsible for having to protect their children and typically they are expected to leave or force their partners to leave and women are also responsible for making men realize their responsibilities as father and also by making them accountable for their behavior.External environment, the causes and immediate correlates of psychological problems in children are considered although Carrell and Hoekstra (2010) suggested that measuring data could have its methodological limitations. moreover the authors tried to correlate childrens school records with cases of domestic violence to estimate the negative effects of domestic abuse. The results from the study indicated that children from troubled families could have decreasing grades and along with falling grades there is a possibility of misbehavior in the classroom. movement scores are however affected by family differences so domestic violence could not be the only factor for determining grades but the family environment is also important.In many cases when women face domestic violence at home they are asked to stay with their husbands for the children. Although Emery (2009) suggests that the concept of marriage could gain men, women and children. The relationship between marital stability, husband violence, and childrens behavior problems was studied and the matrimonial women who telled husband violence also indicated child behavioural problems although this negative behavior reduced when violence was controlled.Witnessing, participating or being report to domestic violence would all have ne gative consequence and especially adverse consequences for children. There are socio demographic correlates of children who witness domestic violence and this could have an association with mental disorders both as children and as adults (Meltzer et al, 2009). The traumatic effects of experiencing domestic violence were run aground to be related to biographic, socio-demographic and socio-economic characteristics and the report stated that at least 4% of children are regularly subject to domestic abuse. The factors hat could cause greater likelihood of domestic violence would be mixed ethnicity, physical disorder, several children in family, divorced parents, accompaniment in rented accommodation, poor neighbourhoods, the mothers emotional state and family dysfunction. A greater likelihood of the child witnessing domestic violence has been associated with conduct disorder although this was not associated with emotional disorders and there has been an association of domestic violenc e and emotional disorders so that with witnessing of domestic violence social shapeers and policy makers could identify the needs of the children who witness domestic violence.Impact of Domestic Violence on ChildrenYoung plenty caught in negative family experiences could be adversely affected by gap in knowledge of issues related to domestic abuse (Templeton et al 2009). Young people sometimes create the circumstances they live in and in the study by Templeton 8 young people were interviewed from five families (Templeton et al 2009). It has been suggested that research in which the opinion of young people are taken directly would be needed and in this case data from five families helped understand the lives of young people who lived with parental alcohol misuse and violence. Links have been found between parental drinking and domestic abuse with verbal aggression and physical violence. The young people noted a range of strategies in which they tried to cope with their home environ ments and one of the ways they reliable support was from friends, family and other professionals. The come and policy responses for children living in family environments will have to be changed significantly.It has been suggested that intimate partner violence is not just a distinct and unitary phenomenon and could be diametricaliated harmonize to partner dynamics, context and consequences and the four patterns of violence described are coercive controlling violence, violent resistance, situational couple violence and separated instigated violence (Kelly et al, 2008). Gender agreement and asymmetry in intimate partner violence could be studied although there would be methodological limitations. Differentiation in the different types of domestic violence would be thinkable with procedures as explained in family, criminal courts with characteristics of different types of partner violence. Parenting plans tend to hold outcomes for children and parent child relationships. Spilsbu ry et al (2008) discussed adjustment problems in community program samples with the school children being exposed to domestic violence. Children with internalizing and externalizing problems are the majority in domestic violence cases although children could also have externalizing problem without internalizing problem. as yet there are a small group of children with internalizing problems only. The demographic and violence characteristics showed that profiles of domestic violence and children affected by it could differ by child gender, mothers statement, childrens lifetime exposure to violence and contacts with community programs (Spilsbury et al, 2008).When children are exposed to domestic violence the focus becomes child neglect according to jurisdictions and DAmbrosio (2008) suggests that not all domestic violence is the same and not all families are affected with domestic violence issues. The several factors of domestic violence could be the frequency and intensity of violen ce, the frequency and intensity of childs exposure to violence, the family members ludicrous experiences and characteristics. The parents who participate in counselling services help in the progress of health and safety of their children and also support removal of children from any exposure to domestic violence. Child fortress agencies examines domestic violence and also helps in mitigating the effects of childs exposure to domestic violence and in some cases could provide an opinion for or against removal of children from homes exposed to domestic violence.In go wellbeing states, the abuse of mothers by their adolescent male children has been found to be prevalent (Hunter et al, 2010). nonetheless as Hunter el al claim, mother to child abuse remains a very under researched form of family and domestic violence and not much is studied about child to parent violence and usually it is the other way round. There are issues of stigma or shame when children are violent with their p arents and studies on this usually focus on the interventions that could deal with anti social behavior and adolescent violence towards mothers is a prevalent issue. This brings in the different disciplines of youth justice, child welfare and domestic violence into focus and the behavior of children and young people towards their mother could highlight issues of responsibility. However there is also a misfortune of service providers to move to such destructive forms of intimate interpersonal violence.In another study that showed resilience among children who were exposed to domestic violence, mother-child dyads were examined when the children were 2-4 years of age. The study suggested that the young children who were exposed to domestic violence were more likely than the other group who were not exposed to domestic violence to show symptoms of internalizing and externalizing problems (Martinez-Torteya, 2009). However among the children who were exposed to domestic violence, 54% sh owed positive adaptation and non depressed mothers and then greater resilience when compared with their non resilient counterparts. Domestic violence on a prolonged basis was associated with maternal depression, difficult child temperament and internalizing or externalizing symptoms. Heterogeneous outcomes among children exposed to domestic violence would involve influence on childrens adaptation.The perspectives of individuals and their relationships with each other and their lives and identity have been examined by Castelino (2009) and the focus was on family violence intervention programs. The study was on mens behavior change as they worked closely with their partners or children for their own safety. Within this organizational context, the childrens experiences at home with domestic violence have not been explored and although there is a manikin for engaging in therapeutic work, the context of family violence tends to highlight work exploring safety and well being along with the knottyity of family environment. The childrens experiences in domestic violence situations have been considered as significantly important. Berrick (2009) has argued that child welfare in the US is in a state of crisis and intense family problems such as drug addiction, domestic violence and criminal behavior bring greater problems to child behavior. When children are however removed from their homes they could be in a state of impermanence or transience without being in a stable family. Childrens well being and health should not be compromised in extended family relationships and the governments role is important in defining the vulnerability of childrens lives. Children are prevented from ill-treating their parents and this is done by placing them with wishrs also as Berrick argues these carers may not carry out the qualifications for providing adequate care. However the primary mission of children would be an emphasis on protecting children who have been harmed by parents. The impact of exposure to domestic violence could be studied in terms of effects on health and well being of children and young people and Holt (2008) studied the impact of domestic violence across separate and interrelated domains as in domestic violence exposure and child abuse, impact on parental capacity, impact on child and adolescent development and exposure to additional adversities (Holt, 2008). The arranges that would high hat suit childrens needs have also been highlighted. Holts study used databases with an 11 year framework and the results suggested that children and adolescents living with domestic violence could face increased encounters of emotional and behavioural problems and could experience physical and sexual abuse with the presence of adverse conditions at home.The protective factors that could possibly reduce the impact of domestic violence on children would a strong and supportive relationship with one parent and in most cases it is the mother who provides support to children who may be facing emotional problems although in some cases the children are crush removed from the home and given separate shelters by the social service providers.Children and young people are affected emotionally and behaviourally when they face domestic violence and the effects could be long term and would continue to ensure safety of the children. Children also construct their own social world and well-timed(a) and individualized personalized responses have been considered as more leave. Timely and appropriate individually tailored responses to build resilience in the childs life could mean significant implications for responses.The relationship between domestic violence and different forms of child abuse show that exposure to domestic abuse could have different levels of impact on children and some children are more vulnerable than others and there could be potentially very harmful emotional, behavioural and physical effects in such children. The protec tive factors that could influence impact of exposure and outcomes for the child would suggest the need for a holistic child centred approach to service delivery and for this there is a need to focus on the judicial decision as well as the need to understand the individual childs experience and how it would be necessary to be responsive to the childs individual needs.Chang et al (2008) studied the association of partner psychological abuse and child maltreatment after using a sample of mothers with children aged 0-17 years and the mothers were asked about the situation of neglectful or abusive behaviors towards their children or abusive behavior by their husbands and partners. Outcome measures for abuse could range from no abuse to mother as perpetrator, father as perpetrator, to both parents as perpetrators. The results indicated that children were at greater risk of maltreatment when parents psychologically abused each other although some factors which affected children were moth ers level of education, child age and gender. When the father of the family abuses the mother, the impact on children is greater than when there is no psychological abuse. Partner psychological abuse is thus strongly related to maltreatment of the children and an increased risk of maltreatment was found with partner psychological abuse. Prevention of abuse is only possible with education about the serious impact of partner violence. Domestic violence and child welfare agencies should be aware of the link between partner psychological abuse and child maltreatment (Chang et al, 2008) and work towards identifying and alleviation of these problems.How professionals protect children from domestic violence.2.5 Different services or interventions that can protect childrenSeveral social work and social service agencies are responsible for taking care of children especially children who are abused and the different interventions that can protect children from domestic violence highlight not just the complexities of social work pull but also child behavior.In a study by Healey and Darlington (2009), it was suggested that participation of children and parents in child shelter service could be complex and sensitive in social work practice as children and parents would have different issues in child security measure cases and could voice varied concerns. In most cases participation would be separate and distinct. Child auspices policies are closely associated with prevention of domestic abuse and promoting direct participation of children is a sensitive issue in social work practice. The child protection legislation policies promote ideals of service user participation although the principles and methods of achieving participatory practices in child protection will have to be elaborated and identified. However as Healey (2009) claim, the methods for participating in child protection services are not well developed. Child protection could refer to child and family welfa re services and the prevention of child abuse, including through domestic abuse and possible neglect and the social service agencies seem to have a responsibility in protection of children in all contexts . The services included in child protection are family support, domestic violence, statutory child protection, child and family advocacy services and a participatory practice in child protection. A qualitative analysis of interviews with child protection services show five domains of child protection work and core principles of participatory practice as given by Healey et al, (2009).The potential of social workers to shift from child protection to child welfare practice would show how social workers respond to child care problems (CCPs). Hayes and Spratt (2009) examined the potential of social workers from child protection to child welfare practice orientation and related child care problems. Social service trusts have usually responded to social policy goals to commensurateness t he protection of children and meeting welfare needs through reducing child protection investigations. Social workers tend to address perceived child protection risks and tend to balance social policing and supportive functions in practice as given in Every Child Matters (Chief Secretary to the Treasury, 2003)Ferguson (2009) highlighted the core experience of doing social work and the emotions and challenges of accessing children in social services. The methodology of child protection suggests that home visit is ignored and the emphasis is on policy and practice texts that happens in inter agency collaboration. The primary problem in present-day(a) child protection services for social workers would be the process of meaningfully engage with children. The practice through sociology and psychodynamic social work theory provides an grounds of social work experience. The concept of containment suggest ways in which practitioners could provide child protection for the benefit of childre n and other service users.2.6 Barriers to services- and how children can overhaul that.Services and interventions that can protect children include social work child protection services, and some of the barriers to service in child protection would be lack or shortage of resources and lack of understanding how child protection works. Barriers to service could also be about lack of cooperation and the children could overcome the barriers by actively cooperating with the social services and the parents and children should be able work in concert to cooperate in child protection issues. All risks will have to be identified and the children and parents and other relevant service users will have to ensure that social services agencies are able to provide the rightly kind of protection to the children. If the children have problems with custody or staying at a place with high levels of domestic violence, the social services may well take legal help to have them relocated to other shelte rs which would be safer for the children if the home environment is not safe enough.4- Chapter 33.1 Limitation or findings- Critiquing the researchers about good and bad on their findings according to their aims.5. Chapter 44.1 password4.2 Conclusion